The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943-1944 (The Liberation Trilogy) by Rick Atkinson
Also by Rick Atkinson
The Long Gray Line
Crusade
An Army at Dawn
In the Company of Soldiers
The Day of Battle
The Day of Battle
THE WAR IN SICILY AND ITALY, 1943–1944
VOLUME TWO OF THE LIBERATION TRILOGY
Rick Atkinson
Henry Holt and Company
New York
To John Sterling
Muses, launch your song!
What kings were fired for war, what armies at their orders
thronged the plains? What heroes sprang into bloom,
what weapons blazed, even in those days long ago,
in Italy’s life-giving land?
Virgil, The Aeneid
CONTENTS
LIST OF MAPS
MAP LEGEND
ALLIED CHAIN OF COMMAND
PROLOGUE
PART ONE
1. ACROSS THE MIDDLE SEA
Forcing the World Back to Reason
Calypso’s Island
“The Horses of the Sun”
Death or Glory
2. THE BURNING SHORE
Land of the Cyclops
The Loss of Irrecoverable Hours
“Tonight Wear White Pajamas”
“The Dark World Is Not Far from Us”
3. AN ISLAND REDOUBT
“Into Battle with Stout Hearts”
“How I Love Wars”
Snaring the Head Devil
Fevers of an Unknown Origin
A Great Grief
“In a Place Like This”
PART TWO
4. SALERNO
“Risks Must Be Calculated”
Plots, Counterplots, and Cross-plots
The Stillest Shoes the World Could Boast
The Moan of Lost Souls
A Portal Won
5. CORPSE OF THE SIREN
“I Give You Naples”
“Watch Where You Step and Have No Curiosity at All”
The Mountainous Hinterland
“The Entire World Was Burning”
6. WINTER
The Archangel Michael, Here and Everywhere
“A Tank Too Big for the Village Square”
A Gangster’s Battle
Too Many Gone West
PART THREE
7. A RIVER AND A ROCK
Colonel Warden Makes a Plan
“Nothing Was Right Except the Courage”
The Show Must Go On
8. PERDITION
“Something’s Happening”
Through the Looking Glass
Jerryland
9. THE MURDER SPACE
This World and the Next World at Strife
The Bitchhead
“Man Is Distinguished from the Beasts”
PART FOUR
10. FOUR HORSEMEN
A Fairyland of Silver and Gold
The Weight of Metal
Dragonflies in the Sun
11. A KETTLE OF GRIEF
Dead Country
“Put the Fear of God into Them”
“You Are All Brave. You Are All Gentlemen”
“On the Eve of Great Things”
12. THE GREAT PRIZE
Shaking Stars from the Heavens
A Fifth Army Show
The Cuckoo’s Song
Expulsion of the Barbarians
EPILOGUE
PHOTOGRAPHS
NOTES
SELECTED SOURCES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INDEX
MAPS
1. Operation HUSKY, Invasion of Sicily, July 1943
2. Counterattack at Gela, July 11, 1943
3. Attack Across Sicily, July 1943
4. Capture of Troina, August 1–6, 1943
5. Race to Messina, August 1943
6. The Italian Battlefield, September 1943–June 1944
7. Struggle at Salerno, September 9–14, 1943
8. Fifth Army at the Winter Line, mid-November 1943
9. First and Second Attacks on San Pietro, December 1943
10. Canadian Attack at Ortona, December 1943
11. Assault on the Rapido River, January 20–22, 1944
12. Anzio Landings and Early Advance, January 22–31, 1944
13. U.S. and French Attacks at Cassino, January 25–February 12, 1944
14. German Counterattack at Anzio, February 16–20, 1944
15. Operation DICKENS at Cassino, March 15–24, 1944
16. Operation DIADEM, May 11–23, 1944
17. Breakout at Anzio, May 23–25, 1944
18. Shifting the Attack at Anzio, May 25–26, 1944
19. The Liberation of Rome, May 31–June 4, 1944
MAP LEGEND
ALLIED CHAIN OF COMMAND
INVASION OF SICILY, JULY 1943
ALLIED CHAIN OF COMMAND
OPERATION DIADEM, FINAL DRIVE TO ROME, MAY 1944
The Day of Battle
PROLOGUE
SHE could be heard long before she was seen on that foggy Tuesday morning, May 11, 1943. Through the mist swaddling lower New York Bay sounded a deep bass A, two octaves and two notes below middle C, not so much blown as exhaled from the twin seven-foot whistles on the forward funnel, specially tuned to be audible ten miles away without discomfiting passengers at the promenade rail. Her peacetime paints—red, white, and black—had vanished beneath coats of pewter gray, although only after a spirited protest by camouflage experts who preferred a dappled pattern of blues and greens, called the Western Approaches scheme, to better befuddle enemy U-boats trying to fix her speed, bearing, and identity. Not that anyone glimpsing the famous triple stacks, the thousand-foot hull, or the familiar jut of her regal prow could doubt who she was. Gray paint had also been slathered over her name, but she remained, in war as in peace, the Queen Mary.
She slid past Ambrose Light at 8:30 A.M., precisely five days, twenty hours, and fifty minutes after leaving Gourock, Scotland. Escorting U.S. Navy destroyers peeled away to seaward. Like her antebellum colors, the Queen’s prewar finery was long gone, stripped and stored in a New York warehouse: the six miles of Wilton carpet, the two hundred cases of bone china and crystal, the wine cabinets and humidors that had provided fourteen thousand bottles and five thousand cigars on a typical crossing in the palmy days of peace. For this voyage, designated WW #21W, she had been transformed into a prison ship. Carpenters had removed any belowdecks fitting that could be used as a weapon, while installing alarm bells, locks, sandbagged machine-gun redoubts, and coiled barbed wire around dining and exercise areas. Now from deep in the hold came the drone of five thousand German prisoners, bagged in the North African campaign just ending and held in Scottish cages before being tendered to the Queen in Gourock. Three hundred British soldiers stood watch below; any guard inclined to befriend the enemy was advised, “Remember their barbarities.” In truth, five days of violent zigzagging across the North Atlantic had rendered the barbarians docile. This lot, bound for a constellation of camps in the American Southwest, more than tripled the German POW population in the United States, which eventually would reach 272,000. To reduce heating bills, most camps sat south of 40 degrees north latitude; some commandants fed their prisoners bacon and eggs, encouraged camp pets and piano lessons, and permitted the Germans to order curtains from a Sears, Roebuck catalogue. That, too, encouraged docility.
But it was on the upper decks that the Queen Mary’s larger purpose on this voyage could be found. The secret passenger manifest listed
To mislead potential spies lurking in Scottish ports, great pains had been taken to obscure the details of this voyage. The ship’s print shop in Gourock had engraved menus in Dutch to suggest that the mysterious traveler to New York was Wilhelmina, exiled queen of the Netherlands. Workmen also installed wheelchair ramps and handrails, and counterintelligence rumormongers in dockyard pubs let slip that the Queen Mary was being dispatched to pick up President Franklin D. Roosevelt for a secret visit to Britain. But all pretense ended shortly after nine A.M. The ship’s great screws turned a final turn, the iron anchor sank with a rattle and a mighty splash, and Air Commodore Spencer strolled on deck, “looking well and fat and pink,” and eager to get on with the war.
Like the Queen Mary, Winston S. Churchill was simply too obtrusive to disguise, “the largest human being of our time,” as one contemporary concluded. There was the Havana cigar, of course, said to be long as a trombone and one of the eight he typically smoked in a day. The familiar moon face glowered beneath the furrowed pate he had taken to rubbing with a scented handkerchief. This morning, after leaving a £10 tip for the Queen’s service staff, he swapped the casual “siren suit” worn through much of the voyage for the uniform of the Royal Yacht Squadron. The effect had been likened to that of “a gangster clergyman who has gone on the stage.” The previous night Churchill had celebrated both his imminent arrival in America and the third anniversary of his premiership with the sort of feast that recalled not only the Queen’s prewar luxury but the sun-never-sets Empire itself: croûte au pot à l’ancienne, petite sole meunière, pommes Windsor, and baba au rhum, all washed down with a magnum of Mumm’s Cordon Rouge, 1926.
“We are all worms,” Churchill once intoned, “but I do believe I am a glow-worm.” Who could dispute it? For three years he had fought the good fight, at first alone and then with the mighty alliance he had helped construct. He had long warned minions that he was to be awakened at night only if Britain were invaded; that alarum never sounded. His mission in this war, he asserted, was “to pester, nag and bite”—a crusade that Roosevelt, who would receive thirteen hundred telegrams from Churchill during the war, knew all too well. “Temperamental like a film star and peevish like a spoilt child,” the prime minister’s army chief wrote of him; his wife, Clementine, added, “I don’t argue with Winston. He shouts me down. So when I have anything important to say I write a note to him.”
“In great things he is very great,” said the South African statesman and field marshal Jan Smuts, “in small things not great.” Certainly the small things engaged him, from decrying a shortage of playing cards for soldiers, to setting the grain ration for English poultry farmers, to reviewing all proposed code words for their martial resonance. (He sternly forbad WOEBE-TIDE, JAUNDICE, APÉRITIF, and BUNNYHUG.) Yet his greatness in great things obtained. It was perhaps best captured by an admirer’s seven-word encomium: “There is no defeat in his heart.”
Sea voyages always reinvigorated Churchill, and none more than WW #21W. The prime minister’s traveling party privately dubbed him “Master,” and he had worked them hard each day, from cipher clerks to field marshals, preparing studies and the memoranda known as “prayers” for the TRIDENT meetings set to start on Wednesday. Typists worked in shifts on a specially designed silent Remington, taking down dispatches and minutes he mumbled through billowing cigar smoke. (His diction was further impeded by his lifelong struggle with the letter “s.”) He stamped especially urgent documents with the decree “action this day,” then retired for another hand of bezique—played with multiple decks from which all cards below seven were removed—and another tot of brandy, or champagne, or his favorite whiskey, Johnnie Walker Red. He had insisted on mounting a machine gun in his lifeboat. If the Queen were torpedoed, he declared, “I won’t be captured. The finest way to die is in the excitement of fighting the enemy…. You must come with me in the boat and see the fun.” At times he seemed weighted with cares—“all hunched up and scowling at his plate”—and he rebuked those unblessed with his fluency by reading aloud from Fowler’s Modern English Usage on the “wickedness of splitting infinitives and the use of ‘very’ instead of ‘much.’” Yet more often he was in high spirits: discussing seamanship with the captain on the bridge, watching films like The Big Shot and All Through the Night in the lounge, or chuckling at stories swapped over supper in his cabin with his confederates. Particularly pleasing was a Radio Berlin report that placed him in the Middle East, supposedly attending a conference with Roosevelt. “Who in war,” he asked, “will not have his laugh amid the skulls?”
Churchill had proposed inspiriting his American cousins by storming ashore in Manhattan’s Battery Park, then promenading up Broadway. “One can always do what one wants if it takes people by surprise,” he explained. “There is not time for plotters to develop their nefarious plans.” Alas, the U.S. Secret Service disagreed, and instead three anonymous launches wallowed across the gray harbor toward the Queen Mary from Tompkinsville, on Staten Island. Waiting on the docks was Harry Hopkins, the president’s closest counselor, with the Ferdinand Magellan, a seven-car presidential train pointed toward Washington.
As Churchill stepped into the lead launch, the Queen’s entire company stood at the rails and cheered him off, their huzzahs trailing him to shore, where he disembarked and tossed a farewell wave before clambering onto the waiting train. They also knew, as they stood baying into the fog, that there was no defeat in his heart.
Packed into the Magellan baggage car with the suitcases and document crates was a thick sheaf of maps that had covered the walls of a makeshift war room next to Churchill’s cabin on the Queen Mary. Replicating the campaign maps in the subterranean Cabinet War Rooms beneath Great George Street in London, the sheets depicted—with pushpins and lengths of colored yarn—the battle lines on a dozen combat fronts around the globe on this Tuesday, the 1,349th day of the Second World War. The struggle that had begun in September 1939 was more than half over; yet if both commanders and commanded intuited that they were nearer the end than the beginning, they also sensed that less than half the butcher’s bill had been paid in a bloodletting that ultimately would claim sixty million lives: one life every three seconds for six years. They also knew that if the Allied powers—led by the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union—now possessed the strategic initiative, the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan still held the real estate, including six thousand miles of European coastline and the entire eastern littoral of Asia. This the maps made all too clear.
The exception to Axis territorial hegemony was Africa, a campaign now in its final hours. Seven months earlier, in November 1942, Anglo-American troops had landed in Morocco and Algeria, sweeping aside weak forces of the collaborationist Vichy French government, then wheeling east for a forced march into Tunisia through the wintry Atlas Mountains. There they joined cause with the British Eighth Army, which, after a hard-won victory at El Alamein in Egypt, had pushed west across the crown of Africa. A succession of battles lost and won against two German-Italian armies raged across Tunisia, a country the size of the state of Georgia; particularly galling was the
Victory in North Africa—exhilarating, unqualified victory—also gave the Allies control of the fine ports and airfields from Casablanca to Alexandria. It forestalled Axis threats to Middle Eastern oil fields, reopened the Suez Canal for the first time since 1941—saving two months’ sailing time for convoys going out to India from Britain, since they no longer had to circumnavigate Africa—and exposed the wide southern flank of occupied Europe to further Allied attack. The triumph in North Africa also coincided with victory in the North Atlantic. Ferocious depredations by German submarine wolfpacks had abruptly declined, thanks to improved electronic surveillance and because cryptologists had cracked German naval radio codes, allowing Allied warplanes and ships to pinpoint and destroy the marauders. Germany would lose forty-seven U-boats in May, triple the number sunk in March, and more than 3,500 Allied merchant ships would cross the Atlantic in the summer of 1943 without a sinking; a year earlier, the Allies had lost a ship every eight hours. The German submariner casualty rate during the war, 75 percent, would exceed that of every other service arm in every other nation.