A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century by Barbara W. Tuchman
8 “RAGING WOLF”: Suger in Vie de Louis VI le Gros, q. Ross & McLaughlin, 267–73.
9 ORIGIN OF THE COUCY ARMS: Ancien, based on Duchesne and L’Alouëte. Other versions in Rev. Nobiliare, 1865, vol. Ill, q. Lacaille thèse; also Histoire de la ville de Marie, q. Chaurand, 67–68. See also Dumas & Martinet, 17; Duckett, 19. THOMAS DE MARLE’S CAREER: Guibert of Nogent, 170, 184–85, 199, and dynastie sources.
10 CHARTER OF COUCY-LE-CHTEAU: Sars, 170; Larousse, Gr. Encyc.
11 ENGUERRAND III: Lelong, 281, 286–87.
12 HIS CONSTRUCTIONS AT COUCY: Viollet-le-Duc, Dict., IV, 233–34.
13 AMIENS, “HIGHER THAN ALL THE SAINTS”: J. Brandicourt & J. Desobry, The Cathedral of Amiens, undated brochure issued by the Cathedral.
14 DUC DE BERRY AND CHAPEL WINDOWS: Dufour, 51.
15 COINED OWN MONEY: Sars, 194. COUCY OWED 30 KNIGHTS: Lot & Fawtier, 517.
16 ENGUERRAND IV: for his trial, in addition to dynastic sources, see Margaret Wade Lafarge, St. Louis, Boston, 1968, 175–76.
17 VALUE OF 20 sous: Perroy, “Wage Labour,” 45, n. 1; Jusserand, 46–47, 51.
18 “OF THE GOOD TOWNS”: Georges Chastellain, q. Cartellieri, 76. “EXPOSURE OF THEIR BODIES”: q. Bloch, Feudal, 451.
19 AQUINAS, “COMMON GOOD”: q. Jarret, Social, 18. “PRINCES ARE INSTITUTED”: ibid.
20 “NOT ONE OF US”: Girard de Roussilon, q. Oakeshott, 53.
21 GARIN LI LOHERAINS: q. Gautier (Eng. ed.), 281.
22 BERTRAND DE BORN: q. Bloch, Feudal, 293. DANTE PUT HIM IN HELL: Inferno, XXVIII.
23 “NOT PROPER FOR A NOBLE”: Lewis, 175, 180. SONS OF NOBLES AS MERCHANTS: Cazelles, Société politique, 290.
24 “SHALL HAVE NO CAUSE”: Bonet, 131.
25 KNIGHT WITH 32 COATS-OF-ARMS: He was Jacques de Lalaing; Cartellieri, 75.
26 DURATION OF NOBLE FAMILIES: Lewis, 176–77.
27 DISAPPEARANCE RATE OF 50 PERCENT: Perroy, “Social Mobility.” CLUSEL AND GUICHARD VERT: ibid.
28 SUMPTUARY LAWS: Baldwin, passim.
29 IN FLORENCE: Origo, 290, 298, 300–301. IN FRANCE: Franklin, Rues et cris, 35–36.
30 KNIGHTON: q. Baldwin, 69.
31 GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS: q. Shears in Prestage, 57. UNCOUTH GERMANS: Bonet, 204. “MOST CHIVALROUS SOJOURN”: q. Michelet, III, 255. DON PERO NIÑO: q. Díaz de Gómez (Evans trans.), 133.
32 FRENCH LANGUAGE, MARCO POLO, ST. FRANCIS, VENETIAN SCHOLAR: Artz, 350; Cheyney, 248–49.
33 LONDON BRIDGE: Jusserand, 23–24. FRENCH DOLLS: Bradley, 136.
34 FRENCH IVORIES: E. Mâle, Art et artistes du moyen age, Paris, 1927, 313–14.
35 “YOU PARIS MASTERS”: q. E. R. Chamberlin, Life in Medieval France, London, 1967, 118. “TWO LIGHTS OF THE WORLD”: q. Coville, 394.
36 CEREMONY OF THE rissoles: Dufour, 62–64; Lelong, 181.
Chapter 2—Born to Woe: The Century
1 BALTIC SEA: J. C. Russell, Fontana, 24. CASPIAN SEA: Carpentier, “Autour de la peste noire.”
2 PEOPLE EATING CHILDREN: Russell, Op. cit.
3 BISHOP DENIED BURIAL: CMH, 280.
4 CHILDREN OF PRIESTS: Flick, 175–76. AND OTHER DISPENSATIONS: ibid., 121–22.
5 ALVAR PELAYO, “I FOUND BROKERS”: q. ibid., 180.
6 UNFIT CLERGY, BOY OF SEVEN ET AL.: ibid., 174. BISHOP OF DURHAM: Coulton, Panorama, 128.
7 HENRY OF HEREFORD: q. Cohn, 133–34.
8 JOHN XXII, GOLD CLOTH AND FURS: Origo, 8.
9 “RICH, INSOLENT AND RAPACIOUS”: q. Hay, 277. CARDINAL’S TEN STABLES: CMH, 282.
10 PETRARCH ON “BABYLON OF THE WEST”: Robinson, Readings, I, 502–3. LATRINES OF THE PAPAL PALACE: Gagnière. AMBASSADOR FROM ARAGON: Origo, 7.
11 ST. BRIGITTA, “A FIELD FULL OF PRIDE”: q. Hay, 277.
12 ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY’S COMPLAINT: q. Cutts, 242–43. MATTEO VILLANI: q. Emerton, 178.
13 14TH CENTURY POEM: T. Wright, Political Songs, I, 264–66. “DID NOT BEHAVE AS FRIARS OUGHT”: q. Jusserand, 170.
14 ST. FRANCIS AND BREVIARY: ibid., 166.
15 MONKS LENT MONEY AT INTEREST: Coulton, Panorama, 269.
16 “MUSTARD POTTIS”: q. Jusserand, 171–72. BOILING AN EGG: Ménagier de Paris, 295.
17 FEAST OF FOOLS: Chambers, 294, 315, 325–27; Gayley, 49–50.
18 “THE THORN FALLS OUT”: Chron. C6, I, 317. WOMAN ACCUSED OF INCEST: Cohen, 327.
19 PETRARCH, “A HARD AND WEARY JOURNEY”: Correspondence, 398. “TURN THEE AGAIN”: q. Herlihy, Med. Culture, 409.
20 GASCON SEIGNEUR: He was Amanieu d’Albret VI, q. Boutruche, 177. JOINVILLE ON THE POOR: q. Shears in Prestage, 64.
21 ST. AUGUSTINE: q. Coulton, Panorama, 369. ST. JEROME: q. Pirenne, Europe, 229.
22 “DEVIL ON THE LID”: q. Pirenne, loc. cit. DATINI’S MOTTO: Origo, xiv. PHILIPPE DE BEAUMANOIR: q. Mollat & Wolff, 46.
23 Confréries: Mâle, 167 ff.; M. Mollat, Vie, 91–103.
24 JACQUES DE VITRY: q. Davis, 271, and Evans, Med. France, 34.
25 TEMPLARS ACCUSED OF BLACK ARTS: Jeffry Russell, 195–96, 198.
26 “AND HE WOULD HAVE CONFESSED”: q. CMH, 318–19.
27 MOLAY’S CURSE: The eyewitness report by Godfrey of Paris is quoted in Nouv. biog. générale, ed. Hoefer, Paris, 1861. See also Marcel Lobet, Histoire des Templiers, Liège, 1944, 225; M. Reynouard, Procès et condamnation des Templiers, Paris, 1805, 113.
28 “BAD LAME QUEEN”: Coville, 399. PHILIP VI and THE BEATIFIC VISION: Lea, III, 590, 593; Cath. Encyc, II, 430; Coville, 14.
29 THREAT TO BURN THE POPE: reported by Giovanni Villani, q. J. B. Christophe, Histoire de la Papauté, Paris, 1853, II, 30.
30 PHILIP ARRANGES MARRIAGE OF ENGUERRAND VI: Duchesne, 262–63.
31 EMPEROR LUDWIG AND DAUGHTER: Jarrett, Social, 58.
Chapter 3—Youth and Chivalry
1 ENGLISH PREACHER ON MOTHER AND CHILD: q. Owst, 34–35.
2 KNITTING ON FOUR NEEDLES: White, “Technology Assessment” with illus. Ancren Riivle: q. McLaughlin, 153, n. 90.
3 INFANT MORTALITY ESTIMATED: McLaughlin, III.
4 PHILIP OF NOVARA: “Des iiii tenz d’aage d’ome” [The four ages of man] in Langlois, II, 210–11.
5 ADVICE ON ETIQUETTE: Ménagier, 10, 14–17, 20, 24, 47, 204, 209, 215, 219; T. Wright, Manners, 275; Christine de Pisan, Livre des trois vertus, q. Power, 318; Fra Benvenisco da Ripa, Zinquanta cortesi da Tavola [Fifty courtesies at the table], q. Aries, 381. On absence of advice on child-rearing, see Power, 420.
6 BARTHOLOMEW OF ENGLAND and ALDOBRANDINO OF SIENA: q. McLaughlin, 115, 137, 144, n. 31.
7 HALF THE POPULATION UNDER 21: J. C. Russell, Fontana, 31.
8 BOCCACCIO, “BIRDS, WILD BEASTS”: Questioni d’Amore, chap. 5, q. Putnam’s Reader, 188.
9 CHRONICLER’S COMPLAINT OF SHORT TUNICS: Jean de Venette, q. Luce, Jacquerie, 37.
10 MARCH, “IN WHICH THE WORLD BEGAN”: Nun’s Priest’s Tale.
11 A SCHOLAR OF OXFORD: Thorndike, III, 143. MENTAL DEPRESSION AN ILLNESS: ibid., 251. TRIANGULATION BY A MONK: Davis, 338. WINDMILLS MUST PAY TITHES: White, Med. Tech., 89.
12 TRAVEL—DISTANCES AND CONDITIONS: Boyer; Jusserand, 123; Hay, 363; d’Haucourt, 17; Cipolla, 534; Boissonade, 287; T. Wright, Manners.
13 VENICE-TO-BRUGES POSTAL SERVICE: Origo, 99.
14 SIR HERVÉ DE LÉON: Coulton, Panorama, 325. PILGRIMS’ “HERTES BEGIN TO FAYLE”: ibid.
15 DESCHAMPS ON GERMAN INNS: q. Coopland in notes to Mézières, I, 36. KNEW THE WORLD WAS ROUND: Bartholomew of England, Image du Monde and others in Langlois, Connaissance.
16 AS A FLY ON AN APPLE: Image, q. ibid., 78. DISTANCE FROM THE STARS: ibid., 79.
17 UNIVERSE IN GOD’S ARMS: Mâle, 298. MOON, ECLIPSE, RAIN, TIME BETWEEN THUNDER AND LIGHTNING: Image du Monde, 97–100. VIEWS OF INDIA, PERSIA: ibid., 83–84.
18 GARDEN OF EDEN: Howard Patch, The Other World, Harvard University Press, 1950.
19 “THEY ARE AS GOD PLEASES”: ibid., 93.
20 BOOK OF SIDRA
21 DANTE, CHANTED BY BLACKSMITHS, AND PUBLIC LECTURES ON: Cheyney, 260.
22 ITALIAN BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY: Bandini of Arezzo, Fons memorabilium universi, q. Thorndike, III, 562.
23 CATHERINE’S HUSBAND: He is named Conrad de Hardeck in L’Art de vérifier, 237, and Conrad de Magdebourg by La Chesnaye-Desbois. 62 CATHERINE’S CARE FOR SON’S EDUCATION: BN, ms. fr. 18616.
24 JOHN OF SALISBURY: q. Coulton, Panorama, 242. JOHN THE BLIND DUG UP SYNAGOGUE: Jarrett, Charles IV, 104, n. 1. HIS DEATH: Froissart on Crécy.
25 COST OF HELMET AND WAR-HORSE: Contamine, 656.
26 ST. BERNARD ON TOURNAMENTS: Gautier, 272.
27 KEEP HIS TEETH AND NAILS CLEAN: Painter, 135. Châtelain de Coucy: Delbouille, passim.
28 “MELANCHOLY, AMOROUS AND BARBARIC”: Gaston Paris, q. in Larousse, Gr. Encyc, XIII, 34.
29 EDWARD III AND COUNTESS OF SALISBURY: Chron. Jean le Bel, 30–34; Chron. normande, 54, 59–60; Luce-F, II, 346, and IV, xviii–ix.
30 IDENTITY OF JEAN LE BEL: Snell, 339; Coville, 413.
31 TEUTONIC KNIGHTS HUNTED PEASANTS FOR SPORT: Pirenne, Europe, II, 110.
Chapter 4—War
1 LONGBOW: Stein, 66; Lot & Fawtier, 528.
2Ribauds (CANNON): Oman, 211–17; Chron. Jean de Venette, 157, n. 45.
3 “OH, THE COWARDLY ENGLISH”: Walsingham, q. KL, III, notes, 491. FISH DRANK SO MUCH FRENCH BLOOD: Melsa Chron., q. notes to Chron. Jean de Venette, 154, n. 27.
4 EDWARD III, “CHARM” AND “PETULANCE”: CMH, 438.
5 AQUINAS ON “JUST WAR”: q. Jarrett, Social, 193; Painter, 157. “RIGHT OF SPOIL”: Keen, Laws, 65, 74–75, 140.
6 MICHELET ON BRITTANY: from the famous “Tableau de France” in the Histoire, II, 7–18.
7 CHARLES DE BLOIS—CHARACTER: Huizinga, Waning, 178. BAREFOOT IN THE SNOW: ibid.
8 HURLED 30 HEADS: Mackinnon, 219; see also Roujoux, Hist, des rois et des ducs de Bretagne, 1839, III, 127; A. Clauziou, Hist, de Bretagne, 1941, 97–98.
9 QUEEN JEANNE ON BRUGES: q. Mollat & Wolff, 25.
10 MATTHEW OF WESTMINSTER ON WOOL: q. Thompson, 61. COURTRAI, LOSSES MADE UP BY ENNOBLEMENT: Bloch, Feudal, 324–25.
11 ARTEVELDE STRIKES FLEMISH KNIGHT: Pemoud, 214.
12 ARTEVELDE’S DEATH: Froissart. “Il piccolo re”: q. Tourneur, 467.
13 Double et louche: III, 250.
14 ADVICE OF PARLIAMENT IN 1344: Barnes, 303.
15 SHIPS FOR EXPEDITIONARY FORCE: Hewitt, Organization, 51, 76; Coopland, in notes to Mézières, I, 59.
16 RECRUITMENT AND PROPAGANDA: Oman, 126; Hewitt, op. cit., 30, 159. 84 MILITARY OBLIGATION OF TOWNS: Contamine, 33, 176. ROUEN, NARBONNE, NÎMES: Henneman, Royal, 116, 120, 122, 135, 147.
17 KNIGHTS’ RATES OF PAY: Contamine, 622–23, 626. THE montre: ibid., 537. ARMOR AND HELMET: Oakeshott, 15, 43; Cutts, 344–45; Contamine, 656.
18 “TERRIBLE WORM”: q. Lefranc, 137, from an unnamed contemporary poem, not further identified, MACE FAVORED BY MARTIAL CLERICS: Davis, 196.
19 FRENCH DISDAINED MISSILES: Evans, Life, 140. ARCHER AS “COWARD”: q. Davis, 190.
20 CROSSBOW BANNED BY CHURCH: Painter, 21.
21 CRÉCY: The battle is described in all the chronicles. A useful summary is in Lot, 340–50.
22 ENGLISH ARCHERS PROTECTED BOWSTRINGS: Chron. Jean de Venette, 43. The subject of the wet and dry bowstrings and whether, when wet, they shrink or stretch has been a question of intense discussion among the Crécy buffs, and even of physical experiment by one historian who soaked bowstrings in water to determine the answer.
23 “15 DENIERS WORTH THREE”: Chron. 4 Valois, 14. ESTATES’ DISPLEASURE VOICED: Perroy, Hundred Years, 121.
24 ISABELLE’S BETROTHAL TO LOUIS DE MALE: Chron. Jean le Bel, II, 135–39; Chron. normande, 84–86, 276, n. 7; Luce-F, IV, nn. 1–2, 34–37; Grandes Chrons., ed. Viard, IX, 292; Chron. Jean de Venette, 47–48, 184–85, n. 27; Chron. de Jean de Noyal, ed. Molinier, Bull. SHF, 1883, 253. Song about Isabelle is in Jean de Venette, 48. Summary of the sources in Henry Lucas, The Low Countries and the Hundred Years’ War, 1929, 559–65.
25 CALAIS REDUCED TO EATING EXCREMENT (“Toutes ordures par droite famine”): q. CMH, 349.
26 NUMBERS ENGAGED IN CRÉCY-CALAIS: Postan, EHR.
Chapter 5—“This Is the End of the World”: The Black Death
The chief sources used for this chapter were Campbell; Carpentier; Crawfurd; Coulton, Black Death; Gasquet; Hecker; Ziegler; also Barnes; Bowsky; Bridbury; Cazelles, Peste; Deaux; Meiss, Painting … After the Black Death; Nohl; Renouard: Saltmarsh; Seebohm; Thompson; Thrupp. On the Jews: Abrahams; Salo Baron; Chazan, and Encyclopedia Judaica, Jerusalem and New York, 1970–71.
1 “DEATH IS SEEN SEATED”: Simon de Covino, q. Campbell, 80.
2 “COULD INFECT THE WORLD”: q. Gasquet, 41. WELSH LAMENT: q. Ziegler, 190.
3 “DOGS DRAGGED THEM FORTH”: Agnolo di Tura, q. Ziegler, 58.
4 “OR IF NO MAN IS PRESENT”: Bishop of Bath and Wells, q. Ziegler, 125.
5 “NO BELLS TOLLED”: Agnolo di Tura, q. Schevill, Siena, 211. The same observation was made by Gabriel de Muisis, notary of Piacenza, q. Crawfurd, 113.
6 p. 95 GIVRY PARISH REGISTER: Renouard, III. THREE VILLAGES OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE: Saltmarsh.
7 PETRARCH’S BROTHER: Bishop, 273. BROTHER JOHN CLYN: q. Ziegler, 195.
8 APATHY; “AND IN THESE DAYS”: q. Deaux, 143, citing only “an old northern chronicle.”
9 AGNOLO DI TURA, “FATHER ABANDONED CHILD”: q. Ziegler, 58.
10 “MAGISTRATES AND NOTARIES”: q. Deaux, 49. ENGLISH PRIESTS TURNED AWAY: Ziegler, 261.
11 PARENTS DESERTING CHILDREN: Hecker, 30. GUY DE CHAULIAC, “A FATHER”:
12 q. Gasquet, 50–51.
13 Q NUNS OF THE HÔTEL DIEU: Chron. Jean de Venette, 49.
14 Q PICARDS AND SCOTS MOCK MORTALITY OF NEIGHBORS: Gasquet, 53, and Ziegler, 198.
15 QCATHERINE DE COUCY: L’Art de vérifier, 237. AMIENS TANNERS: Gasquet, 57. “BY THE JOLLITY THAT IS IN us”: Grandes Chrons., VI, 486–87.
16 JOHN OF FORDUN: q. Ziegler, 199. SIMON DE COVINO ON THE POOR: Gasquet, 42. ON YOUTH: Cazelles, Peste.
17 KNIGHTON ON SHEEP: q. Ziegler, 175. WOLVES OF AUSTRIA AND DALMATIA: ibid., 84, III. DOGS AND CATS: Muisis, q. Gasquet, 44, 61.
18 BAVARIAN CHRONICLER OF NEUBERG: q. Ziegler, 84. WALSINGHAM, “THE WORLD COULD NEVER”: Denifle, 273. “OH HAPPY POSTERITY”: q. Ziegler, 45. GIOVANNI VILLANI, “e dure questo”: q. Snell, 334.
19 PHYSICIANS OF VENICE: Campbell, 98. SIMON DE COVINO: ibid., 31. GUY DE CHAULIAC, “I WAS IN FEAR”: q. Thompson, Ec. and Soc., 379. THUCYDIDES: q. Crawfurd, 30–31.
20 CHINESE ORIGIN: Although the idea of Chinese origin is still being repeated (e.g., by William H. McNeill, Plagues and People, New York, 1976, 161–63), it is disputed by L. Carrington Goodrich of the Association for Asian Studies, Columbia Univ., in letters to the author of 18 and 26 October 1973. Citing contemporary Chinese and other sources, he also quotes Dr. George A. Perera of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, an authority on communicable diseases, who “agrees with me that the spaces between epidemics in China (1334), Semirechyé (1338–9) and the Mediterranean basin (1347–9) seem too long for the first to be responsible for the last.”
21 REPORTS FROM THE EAST: Barnes, 432; Coulton, Black Death, 9–11.
22 ANONYMOUS FLEMISH CLERIC, “MOST TERRIBLE”: His correspondence was edited in the form of a chronicle by De Smet, in Recueil des chroniques de Flandres, III, q. Ziegler, 22. GENTILE DA FOLIGNO, “COMMUNICATED BY AIR”: Campbell, 38.
23 REPORT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS: Hecker, 51–53; Campbell, 15.
24 M. VILLANI, “EXTERMINATION OF MANKIND”: q. Meiss, Painting … After the Black Death, 66. ROUEN PROHIBITS GAMBLING: Nohl, 74.
25 AT MESSINA, DEMONS LIKE DOGS: Coulton, Black Death, 22–27. PEST MAIDEN: Ziegler, 85.
26 CANTACUZENE: Barnes, 435. PIERS PLOWMAN, “PURE SIN”: B text,
27 CLEMENT VI, “SENSUAL VICES”: Gregorovius, VI, 334.
28 DOCTORS’ SKILLS: Thorndike, III, 249–51. CATARACTS: Gilles li Muisis, Chron., q. in Intro, χ. SKIN GRAFTS: M. Rowling, Life in Medieval Times, New York, 1973, 192. See also Arturo Castiglione, A History of Medicine, New York, 1946, 398–99.
29 SEWAGE DISPOSAL: Thrupp; Coulton, Panorama, 456; Sabine.
30 VISCONTI MEASURES: Hecker, 58. LEICESTERSHIRE AUTOCRAT RAZED NOSELEY: letter to author, 25 June 1974, from Lord Hazelrigg, direct descendant of the autocrat, and present proprietor of Noseley Hall.
31 LEGEND OF ST. ROCH; “IN THESE SAD TIMES”: q. Mâle, 190. “GOD IS DEAF”:
32 Passus X, line 79.
33 “HOSTILITY OF GOD”: q. Campbell, 132.
34 JEWS’ INTENT TO “KILL AND DESTROY”: Chron. Jean le Bel, I, 225, and Gilles li Muisis, 222.
35 WELL-POISONING: Chron. Jean de Venette, 50; S. W. Baron, XI, 160. “RIVERS AND FOUNTAINS”: from Jugement du Roi de Navarre, 70.
36 RABBI MOSES OF COUCY: Encyc. Jud., VI, 167; VII, 19. JEWS’ BADGE AND POINTED HAT: Abrahams, 287; Enlart, 435. WILLIAM OF NEWBURGH: q. Coulton, Panorama, 359.
37 TRIALS IN SAVOY: COX, 60–70; “Black Death” in Encyc. Jud. CLEMENT’S BULL: Luce-F, IV, 101.
38 FLAGELLANTS: Cohn, 125–37; CMH, chap. 10; Lea, II, 882; Hecker, 34–39; Schnyder, 279–89.
39 MASSACRES AT WORMS, FRANKFURT, COLOGNE, MAINZ, ERFURT: Cohn, 138–39;
40 Heinrich Graetz, History of the Jews, Philadelphia, 1894, IV, 109.
41 DUKE ALBERT H OF AUSTRIA: S. W. Baron, XI, 163. “LIKE NIGHT PHANTOMS”: q. Cohn, 139.
42 JEWS RETURN TO ERFURT: S. W. Baron, IX, 224.
43 DICE INTO PRAYER BEADS: Gasquet, 60. PIERS PLOWMAN: Passus IX, ed. Wells, 110.
44 M. VILLANI, “BETTER MEN”: q. Coulton, Black Death, 66–68.
45 ORVIETO: Carpentier, Ville, 190. PENALTY FOR INTERCOURSE BETWEEN CHRISTIAN AND JEW: ibid., 196.
46 EMPEROR CHARLES IV, “PRECIOUS KNOWLEDGE”: Campbell, 150. CORPUS CHRISTI: ibid., 150.
47 PETRARCH ON BOLOGNA: ibid., 159–60.
48 DECLINE IN POPULATION: J. C. Russell, “Med. pop.”; Carpentier, AESC; Bowsky; Heers, 101–5; Hay, 76.