The Future of Humanity by Michio Kaku
So when we gaze into the heavens at night wondering if anyone is out there, although it may appear to be cold, still, and empty, perhaps the night sky is teeming with trillions of travelers being sent at the speed of light across the heavens.
WORMHOLES AND THE PLANCK ENERGY
This, however, leaves open the second possibility, that faster-than-light travel might be possible for a Type III civilization. A new law of physics enters into this picture. This is the realm of the Planck energy, the scale at which bizarre new phenomena occur that violate the usual laws of gravity.
To understand why the Planck energy is so important, it is essential to realize that at present all known physical phenomena, from the Big Bang to the motion of subatomic particles, can be explained by two theories: Einstein’s general theory of relativity and the quantum theory. Together, they represent the bedrock physical laws governing all matter and energy. The first, general relativity, is the theory of the very big: relativity explains the Big Bang, the properties of black holes, and the evolution of the expanding universe. The second is the theory of the very small: the quantum theory describes the properties and motion of atomic and subatomic particles that make possible all the electronic miracles in our living room.
The problem is that these two theories cannot be united into a single comprehensive one. They are quite dissimilar, based on different assumptions, different mathematics, and different physical pictures.
If a unified field theory were possible, the energy at which unification would take place is the Planck energy. This is the point at which Einstein’s theory of gravity breaks down completely. It is the energy of the Big Bang and the energy at the center of a black hole.
The Planck energy is 1019 billion electron volts, which is a quadrillion times the energy produced by the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, the most powerful particle accelerator on Earth.
At first, it would seem hopeless to probe the Planck energy, since it is so enormous. But a Type III civilization, which has more than 1020 times more energy than a Type I civilization, has enough power to do so. So a Type III civilization may be able to play with the fabric of space-time and bend it at will.
They may reach this incredible energy scale by creating a particle accelerator much bigger than the Large Hadron Collider. The LHC is a circular tube in the shape of a doughnut seventeen miles in circumference, surrounded by huge magnetic fields.
When a stream of protons is injected into the LHC, the magnetic fields bend their path into a circle. Then pulses of energy are periodically sent into the doughnut, causing them to accelerate. There are two beams of protons traveling inside the tube in opposite directions. When they reach maximum velocity, they collide head-on, unleashing the energy of fourteen trillion electron volts, the largest burst of energy ever created artificially. (This collision is so powerful that some people have worried that perhaps it might open up a black hole that could consume the Earth. This is not a valid concern. In fact, there are naturally occurring subatomic particles that hit the Earth all the time with energies much larger than fourteen trillion electron volts. Mother Nature can hit us with cosmic rays far more powerful than the puny ones created in our labs.)
BEYOND THE LHC
The LHC has made many headlines, including the discovery of the elusive Higgs boson, which won the Nobel Prize for two physicists, Peter Higgs and Francois Englert. One of the main purposes of the LHC was to complete the last piece of the puzzle, called the Standard Model of particles, which is the most advanced version of the quantum theory and gives us a complete description of the universe at low energies.
The Standard Model is sometimes called “the theory of almost everything” because it accurately describes the low-energy universe that we see around us. But it cannot be the final theory, for several reasons:
1. It makes no mention of gravity. Worse, when we combine the Standard Model with Einstein’s theory of gravity, the hybrid theory blows up, giving us nonsense (calculations become infinite, meaning that the theory is useless).
2. It has a strange collection of particles that seem quite contrived. It has thirty-six quarks and anti-quarks, a series of Yang-Mills gluons, leptons (electrons and muons), and Higgs bosons.
3. It has nineteen or so free parameters (masses and couplings of particles) that have to be put in by hand. These masses and couplings are not determined by the theory; no one knows why they have these numerical values.
It’s hard to believe that the Standard Model, with its motley collection of subatomic particles, is nature’s final theory. It’s like taking Scotch tape and wrapping up a platypus, aardvark, and whale and calling it Mother Nature’s finest creation, the end product of millions of years of evolution.
The next big particle accelerator currently in the planning stage is the International Linear Collider (ILC), consisting of a straight tube approximately thirty miles long in which beams of electrons and anti-electrons will collide. The current plan is that it will be based in the Kitakami Mountains of Japan and is expected to cost roughly $20 billion, of which half will be supplied by the Japanese government.
Although the maximum energy of the ILC will be only one trillion electron volts, in many ways it will be superior to the LHC. When smashing protons into each other, the collision is extremely difficult to analyze because the proton has a complicated structure. It contains three quarks, held together by particles called “gluons.” The electron, however, has no known structure. It looks like a point particle. Therefore, when an electron collides with an anti-electron, it is a clean, simple interaction.
Even with these advances in physics, our Type 0 civilization cannot directly probe the Planck energy. But this is within the realm of a Type III civilization. Building accelerators like the ILC may be a crucial step in being able to one day test how stable space-time is and determine whether we might be able to take shortcuts through it.
ACCELERATOR IN THE ASTEROID BELT
Eventually, an advanced civilization might build a particle accelerator the size of the asteroid belt. A circular beam of protons would be sent around the belt, guided by gigantic magnets. On Earth, particles are sent inside a large circular tube containing a vacuum. But since the vacuum of outer space is better than any vacuum on the Earth, this accelerator does not need a tube at all.
All it needs is a series of gigantic magnetic stations placed strategically around the belt, making a circular path for the proton beam. It is somewhat like a relay race. Each time the protons go past a station, a surge of electrical energy powers the magnets, which kick the proton beam so that it moves to the next station at the correct angle. Each time the proton beam passes by a magnetic station, more energy is pumped into the beam in the form of laser power, until it gradually reaches the Planck energy.
Once the accelerator attains this energy, it can focus that energy onto a single point. A wormhole should open up there. It would then be injected with enough negative energy to stabilize it so it doesn’t collapse.
What might a trip through the wormhole look like? No one knows, but an educated guess was made by the physicist Kip Thorne of Caltech when he helped to advise the directors of the film Interstellar. Thorne used a computer program to trace the paths of light beams as they went past one, so that you could get a visual feeling for what this trip might look like. Unlike the usual cinematic representations, this was the most rigorous attempt yet to visualize this journey on film.
(In the movie, as you approach a black hole, you see a gigantic black sphere, called the event horizon. As you go through the event horizon, you pass the point of no return. Inside the black sphere lies the black hole itself, a tiny point of incredible density and gravity.)
In addition to building gigantic particle accelerators, there are a few other ways that physicists have considered exploiting wormholes. One possibility is that the Big Bang was so explosive that it might have inflated tiny wormholes that existed in the infant universe 13.8 billion years ago. When the universe began to expa
As a starship enters a wormhole, it must withstand intense radiation due to quantum fluctuations. In principle, only string theory has the ability to calculate the fluctuations, so you can determine if you will survive. Credit 9
Another possibility, also explored by Kip Thorne and his collaborators, is to find a tiny one in the vacuum and then expand it. Our latest understanding of space is that it may be frothing with tiny wormholes as universes spring into existence and then vanish again. So if you had enough energy, you might be able to manipulate a preexisting wormhole and inflate it.
There is one problem, however, with all these proposals. The wormhole is surrounded by particles of gravity, called gravitons. As you are about to pass through it you will encounter quantum corrections in the form of gravitational radiation. Normally, quantum corrections are small and can be ignored. But calculations show that these corrections are infinite as you pass through a wormhole, so the radiation would likely be lethal. Also the radiation levels are so strong that the wormhole may close, making a passage impossible. There is a debate among physicists today about how dangerous it might be to travel through a wormhole.
Einstein’s relativity is no longer of any use as we enter the wormhole. Quantum effects are so large that we need a higher theory to take us through. Currently the only one capable of doing this is string theory, which is one of the strangest ever proposed in physics.
QUANTUM FUZZINESS
What theory can unify general relativity and the quantum theory at the Planck energy? Einstein spent the last thirty years of his life chasing after a “theory of everything” that could allow him to “read the mind of God,” but he failed. This remains one of the biggest questions facing modern physics. The solution will reveal some of the most important secrets of the universe, and, using it, we may be able to explore time travel, wormholes, higher dimensions, parallel universes, even what happened before the Big Bang. Furthermore, the answer will determine whether or not humanity can travel the universe at faster-than-light velocities.
To understand this, we have to understand the basis of the quantum theory, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. This innocent sounding principle states that no matter how sensitive your instruments, you can never know both the velocity and position of any subatomic particle, say an electron. There is always a quantum “fuzziness.” Thus, a startling picture emerges. An electron is actually a collection of different states, with each state describing an electron in a different position with a different velocity. (Einstein hated this principle. He believed in “objective reality,” which is the commonsense notion that objects exist in definite, well-defined states and that you can determine the exact position and velocity of any particle.)
But quantum theory states otherwise. When you look in a mirror, you are not seeing yourself as you really are. You are made up of a vast collection of waves. So the image you see in the mirror is actually an average, a composite of all these waves. There is even a small probability that some of these waves can spread out all over your room and into space. In fact, some of your waves can even spread out to Mars or beyond. (One problem we give our Ph.D. students is to calculate the probability that some of your waves spread out to Mars and that one day you will get out of bed and wake up on the Red Planet.)
These waves are called “quantum corrections” or “quantum fluctuations.” Normally, these corrections are small, so the commonsense notion is perfectly fine, since we are a collection of atoms and can only see averages. But at the subatomic level, these quantum corrections can be large, so that electrons can be several places at the same time and exist in parallel states. (Newton would be shocked if you explained to him how the electrons in transistors can exist in parallel states. These corrections make modern electronics possible. So if we could somehow turn off this quantum fuzziness, all of these marvels of technology would stop functioning and society would be thrown almost a hundred years into the past, before the electric age.)
Fortunately, physicists can calculate these quantum corrections for subatomic particles and make predictions for them, some of which are valid to incredible accuracy, to one part in ten trillion. In fact, the quantum theory is so accurate that it is perhaps the most successful theory of all time. Nothing else can match its accuracy when applied to ordinary matter. It may be the most bizarre theory ever proposed in history (Einstein once said that the more successful the quantum theory becomes, the stranger it becomes), but it has one small thing going for it: it is undeniably correct.
So the Heisenberg uncertainty principle forces us to reevaluate what we know about reality. One result is that black holes cannot really be black. Quantum theory says that there must be quantum corrections to pure blackness, so black holes are actually gray. (And they emit a faint radiation called Hawking radiation.) Many textbooks say that at the center of a black hole, or at the beginning of time, there is a “singularity,” a point of infinite gravity. But infinite gravity violates the uncertainty principle. (In other words, there is no such thing as a “singularity”; it is simply a word we invent to disguise our ignorance about what occurs when the equations don’t work out. In the quantum theory, there are no singularities because there is a fuzziness that prevents knowing the precise location of the black hole.) Similarly, it is often stated that a pure vacuum is a state of pure nothingness. The concept of “zero” violates the uncertainty principle, so there is no such thing as pure nothingness. (Instead, the vacuum is a cauldron of virtual matter and antimatter particles constantly springing in and out of existence.) And there is no such thing as absolute zero, the temperature at which all motion stops. (Even as we approach it, atoms continue to move slightly, which is called the zero-point energy.)
When we try to formulate a quantum theory of gravity, a problem occurs, however. The quantum corrections to Einstein’s theory are described by particles we call “gravitons.” Just like a photon is a particle of light, a graviton is a particle of gravity. Gravitons are so elusive that they have never been seen in the laboratory. But physicists are confident that they do exist, since they are essential to any quantum theory of gravity. When we try to calculate with these gravitons, however, we find that quantum corrections are infinite. Quantum gravity is riddled with corrections that blow up the equations. Some of the greatest minds in physics have tried to solve this problem, but all have failed.
So this is one goal of modern physics: to create a quantum theory of gravity where the quantum corrections are finite and calculable. In other words, Einstein’s theory of gravity allows for the formation of wormholes, which may one day give us shortcuts through the galaxy. But Einstein’s theory cannot tell us if these wormholes are stable or not. To calculate these quantum corrections, we need a theory that combines relativity with the quantum theory.
STRING THEORY
So far, the leading (and only) candidate to solve this problem is something called string theory, which says that all matter and energy in the universe is composed of tiny strings. Each vibration of the string corresponds to a different subatomic particle. So the electron is not really a point particle. If you had a supermicroscope, you would see that it is not a particle at all but a vibrating string. The electron appears to be a point particle only because the string is so tiny.
If the string vibrates at a different frequency, it corresponds to a different particle, such as a quark, mu meson, neutrino, photon, and so on. That is why physicists have discovered such a ridiculous number of subatomic particles. There are literally hundreds, all because they are just different vibrations of a tiny string. In
This means that subatomic particles are just like musical notes. The universe is a symphony of strings, physics represents the harmonies of these notes, and the “mind of God” that Einstein chased after for so many decades is cosmic music resonating through hyperspace.
So how does string theory banish the quantum corrections that have bedeviled physicists for decades? String theory possesses something called “supersymmetry.” For every particle, there is a partner: a superparticle or “sparticle.” For example, the partner of the electron is the “selectron.” The partner of the quark is the “squark.” So we have two types of quantum corrections, those coming from ordinary particles and those from the sparticles. The beauty of string theory is that the quantum corrections coming from these two sets of particles exactly cancel each other out.
Thus, string theory gives us a simple but elegant way to eliminate these infinite quantum corrections. They vanish because the theory reveals a new symmetry that gives the theory its mathematical power and its beauty.
To artists, beauty may be an ethereal quantity that they aspire to capture in their works. But to a theoretical physicist, beauty is symmetry. It is also an absolute necessity when probing the ultimate nature of space and time. For example, if I have a snowflake and rotate it by 60 degrees, the snowflake remains the same. In the same way, a kaleidoscope creates beautiful patterns because it uses mirrors to repeatedly duplicate an image so it fills up 360 degrees. We say that the snowflake and kaleidoscope both possess radial symmetry; that is, they remain the same after a certain radial rotation.